Causes of Cold War

Causes of the Cold War The Cold War was a very dangerous period of history that lasted from 1945 to 1991. The Cold War was started almost immediately after the surrender ing Germany to the end of World War II there was a threat tot the planet and its existence if this war was ever to be fought. Both upheld a great amount of resources into the expanding their military readiness. It was more than a war between two countries, it was a war between different ideologies in fear of the government.In the United States a â€Å"witch hunt† was carried out against communists, as they feared that communism would take over the country and in the Soviet Union people were â€Å"fenced in† by fear of the police and government and they were not free to travel abroad as many escaped from the hard reigning regime (Artikkel). After World War II two great powers emerged in the world. The world was split into two spheres, the West and the East. The power in the West rested in the hands of th e United States and the power in the East the power rested in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.The USSR wanted to spread its ideal government, Communism in Eastern Europe and create a â€Å"buffer zone† as defense against any attacks by the U. S. (Capitalists) or by Germany. In 1946 Europe was split in two the West and East(western democracies and the United States and the Soviet Union and Soviet occupied territory). In Berlin, the capital of Germany a wall was erected to separate theWest the East side, The was known as the â€Å"Iron Curtain†, it was a symbolic of the treat each side felt from the other. The U. S. and U. S. S.R. were as different as day and night. Therefore neither trusted the other completely. A capitalist economy is based on private ownership, private profit and free competition, it encourages private individuals to own businesses and make profits (capitalism). On the other hand a communist economy is very different. The economy is controlled by the government and the country's wealth and resources are owned by the state or government. The state controls and plans all economic activity so that everybody benefits (communism).During World War I and II, the USSR was invaded multiple times resulting in many russian casualties. The USSR began planning making sure they would be secure from any future attack or aggression along the western border. Stalin, the USSR leader, decided to surround Russia with a buffer of â€Å"friendly† countries. The U. S. was afraid that the ideology of Communist would spread largely and vasty. When the USSR began attempting to improve its security by having satellite states, the U. S. saw this as an attempt by the USSR to spread the influence of Communism throughout the world.The United States had the nuclear bomb and soon after that Russia had a nuclear bomb also. Since neither side trusted the other and both wanted to extend their great ideology to the rest of the world, the Cold War hea ted up. Each side constantly believed the other wanted to destroy the other and felt the need to create a better military force. A military tension began between the two countries. The United States also expanded its navy, armed ships with new technology. Scientists were developing new weapons to aid this military buildup.Russia, too also built up their military as well. During this time period, while the Russians pushed the Germans out of their border, they also pushed inwards into Eastern Europe. Russia occupied many countries, making it easier for them to establish control and as they established controls in these areas, they gave the local Communist parties a lot of support. Thus, widened their influence in their countries and brought along Moscow-trained Communist leaders who had gone to the USSR during the war spreading the influence of Communism ((Artikkel).Meanwhile Stalin saw this as an opportunity to establish his ideal one-party governments in these countries , he combine d all allie government and removed their partners which were needed as the Communist Parties in the different countries were not strong enough on their own to gain the support of the people and govern the country. The USSR was now able to continue and increase/maintain power in Eastern Europe, successfully forming the satellite states (Iron Curtain). The arms race had a different result on the economies for each country.The US experienced great economic expansion, new companies were founded by the people to supply the needs of the military. More money was being pumped into the society and as people received more money, they wanted choices how to spend their money. So businesses that expanded this economies expansion. Resources were diverted from one area to provide for the expansion of the military. Since the government owned everything, new companies formed took resources from other areas of their economy.The military expansion robbed resources the provided needs for the needs of t he people hence the result was a shortage of food and other necessary goods for the day to day survival. The arms race resulted in a contraction of the Russian economy. In June 1947, the Marshall Plan was put into effect in order to stop the Russians from influencing any of the weakened western powers(Marshall). Meanwhile the United States sent billions of dollars to help aid to Europe democracies and rebuild vastly reducing the influence of Communism. This brought back Western Germany and rebuilt it as a new ally in US’s fight against USSR.As a result of Russia rejection of aid to Marshall Plan, East Germany was not completely rebuilt, the lack of reconstruction showed and also during its reunification. The Communists never paid for all of the reconstruction cost while Germany’s economy did taking big hit in their economy. The Truman Doctrine, a plan to help states going through a struggle for freedom against their oppressors, was instituted in 1948. President Truman said, â€Å"I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures (Truman). Communism was only allowed to areas already under Soviet control, and Americans would resist Soviet expansion everywhere else. The Truman Doctrine could not have been more clearly directed towards East Germany and, technically, West Germany (Truman). Germany was still under the power of an outside force and also under the power the Deutsches Demokratische Republik. In 1949 the Allies made good on what they promised in the Truman Doctrine and unified West Germany into the BDR (Federal Republic of Germany) and also the Russians instituted the DDR, which turned out to be more of a regime than a government (Truman).

Aspect Oriented Software Development

The implementation of software applications using GOAD techniques results in a better implementation structure which has an impact on many important software qualities such as enhanced risibility and reduced complexity. In turn, these software qualities lead to an improved software development lifestyle and, hence, to better software. This report introduces to management and software development staff to the concepts of aspect- orientation software development.It presents why aspect-orientation is needed in modern software development and what its contributions are to the improvement of software design and implementation structure. The report also highlight AAA technology details though without probing much in particular, as it present the various concepts of GOAD. After reading this introduction, the reader will understand what GOAD is about, know its key concepts and terminology engaged to elaborate 2. Introduction As software systems becomes more complex developers use new technol ogies to help manage development. The development of large and complex software applications is a challenging task. Apart from the enormous complexity of the software's desired functionality, software engineers are also faced with many other acquirement that are specific to the software development lifestyle. Requirements such as risibility, robustness, performance, believability, etc. Re requirements about the design and the implementation of the software itself, rather than about its functionality. Nevertheless, these non-functional requirements cannot be neglected because they contribute to the overall software quality, which is eventually perceived by the users of the software application. For example, a better believability will ensure that future maintenance tasks to the implementation can be carried out relatively easily and consequently also with fewer errors.Building software applications that adhere to all these functional and non-functional requirements is an ever more co mplex activity that requires appropriate programming languages and development paradigms to adequately address all these requirements throughout the entire software development lifestyle. To cope with this ever-growing complexity of software development, computer science has experienced a continuous evolution of development paradigms and programming languages. In the early days, software was directly implemented in machine-level assembly languages, leading to highly omelet implementations for even simple software applications.The introduction of the procedural and functional programming paradigms provided software engineers with abstraction mechanisms to improve the design and implementation structure of the software and reduce its overall complexity. An essential element of these paradigms is the ability to structure the software in separate but cooperating modules (e. G. Procedures, functions, etc. ). The intention is that each of these modules represents or implements a well-iden tified subpart of the software, which renders the individual modules better reusable and evolvable.Modern software development often takes place in the object-oriented programming paradigm that allows to further enhance the software's design and implementation structure through appropriate object-oriented modeling techniques and language features such as inheritance, delegation, encapsulation and polymorphism. Aspect-oriented programming languages and the entire aspect-orientation paradigm are a next step in this ever continuing evolution of programming languages and development paradigms to enhance software development and hence, improve overall software quality 3. 0Fundamental ideas underlying aspects and aspect-oriented software development The notion behind aspects is to deal with the issue of tangling and scattering. According to Ian Somerville (2009), tangling occurs when a module in a system includes code that implements different system requirements and scattering occurs whe n implementation of a single concern (logical requirement or set of requirements) is scattered across several components in a program. 3. 1 What an Aspect is. Aspect is an abstraction which implements a concern. Aspects are completely specification of where it should be executed.Unlike other abstractions like methods, you cannot tell by examining methods where it will be called from because there is clear separation between the definition and of the abstraction and its use. With Aspects, includes a statement that defines where the aspect will be woven into the program. This statement is known as a pinpoint. Below is an example of a pinpoint (Ian Somerville, 2006) before: call (public void update* (.. )) This implies that before the execution of many method whose starts with update, followed by any other sequence of characters, the code in the aspect after the induct definition should be executed.The wildcat (*) matches any string characters that are allowed in the identifiers. The c ode to be executed is known as the advice and is implementation of the cross-cutting concern. In an example below of an aspect authentication (let's say for every change of attributes in a payroll system requires authentication), the advice gets a password from person requesting the change and checks that it matches the password of currently logged -in user. If not user is logged out and update does not proceed. Aspect authentication before: call (public void update* (.. // this is a pinpoint { // this is the advice that should be executed when woven into // the executing system into tries = O; string swearword = Password. Get ( tries ) ; while (tries Pinpoint: defines specific program events with which advice should be associated (I. E. , woven into a program at appropriate Join points) Events may be method calls/ returns, accessing data, exceptions, etc. Weaving: incorporation of advice code into the program (via source code preprocessing, link-time weaving, or execution time weav ing) 4. 0 Why Separation of Concerns a good guiding principle for Software Development Separation of concerns is a key principle of software design and implementation. Concerns reflect the system requirements and the priorities of the system stakeholders.Some examples of concerns are performance, security, specific categorized in several types. Functional concerns, quality of service concerns, Policy concerns, System concerns and Organizational concerns. Functional: related to specific functionality to be included in a system. Quality of service: related to the nonfunctional behavior of a system (e. G. , performance, reliability, availability). System: related to attributes of the system as a whole (e. G. , maintainability, configurability). Organizational: related to organizational goals and priorities (e. G. , staying within budget, using existing software assets).In other areas concerns has been categorized according to different areas of interest or properties I. E. High level i mplies security and quality of service, Caching and buffering are Low level while Functional includes features, business rules and Non Functional (systematic) implies synchronization, transaction management. By reflecting the separation of concerns in a program, there is clear traceability from requirements to implementation. The principle of separation of concerns states that software should be organized so that each program element does one thing and one thing only.In this case it means each aerogram element should therefore be understandable without reference to other elements. Program abstractions (subroutines, procedures, objects, etc) support the separation of concerns. Core concerns relate to a system's primary purpose and are normally localized within separate procedures, objects, etc. And other concerns tend to scatter and cross multiple elements. These cross-cutting concerns are managed by aspect since they cannot be localized resulting in problems when changes are require d due to tangling and scattering.Separation of concerns provides modular dependency between aspects and components. For instance we would like to maintain a system that manages payroll and personnel functions in our organization, and there is a new requirement to create a log of all changes to an employee's data by management. It would mean that changes will include in payroll, number of deduction, raises, employee's personal data and sass of many other information associated with employee. This implies that there are several codes that will require changes.This process could be tedious and you might end up forgetting changing other codes as well even not understanding each and every code. With aspects you old deal with a particular element only. In this case there won't be redundancy of multiple codes doing the same thing. An update function could be implemented that would be called whenever you would want to implement a particular method. 5. 0 Aspect-oriented Approach 5. 1 Require ment Engineering In requirements engineering there is need to identify requirements for the core system and the requirements for the system extensions.Viewpoints are a way to separate the concerns of different stakeholders that are core and secondary concerns. Each viewpoint represents the requirements of related groups of stakeholder. The requirements are organized according to stakeholder viewpoint then they are analyses to discover related requirements that appear in all or most viewpoints. These represent the core functionality of the system. There could be other viewpoint requirements that are specific to that viewpoint these then can be implemented as extensions to the core functionality.These requirements (secondary functional requirements) often reflect the needs of that viewpoint and may not share there are non-functional requirements that are cross-cutting concerns. These generate requirements of to some or all viewpoint for instance requirements for security, performance and cost. 5. 2 Software Design Aspect Oriented Design is the process of designing a system that makes use of aspects to implement the cross-cutting concerns and extensions that are identified during the requirements engineering process.ADD focuses on the explicit representation of cross-cutting concerns using adequate design languages. ADD languages consist of some way to specify aspects, how aspects are to be composed and a set of well-defined composition semantics to describe the details of how aspects are to be integrated. (Chitchat, Awls Rashes, Pete Sawyer, Alexandra Garcia, Monica Pinto Larson, Jotter Beaker, Bedim Ticonderoga, Skibobs Clarke, Andrew Jackson, 2005) Like in object orientation, several aspect-oriented extensions to ML design language to represent aspect-oriented concepts at the design level.One of these ML extensions is ATOM. ADD in ML requires a means of modeling aspects using ML stereotypes. Is an approach of specifying the Join points where the aspect advice is to be composed with the core system. The high-level statement of requirements provides a basis for identifying some system extensions that may be implemented as aspects. Developing these in more details to identify further extensions and understanding the functionality required is to identify a set of use cases associated with each viewpoint. Each use case represents an aspect.Extension use cases naturally fit the core and extensions architectural model of system. Jacobsen and Eng (2004)) 5. 2. 1 Aspect-oriented Design Process Below is fugue 1 that illustrate the design activities of generic aspect-oriented design process Core system design is where you design the system architecture to support the core functionality of the system. Aspect identification and design Starting with the extensions identified in the system requirements, you should analyses these to see if they are aspects in themselves or if they should be broken down into several aspects.Composition design At this sta ge, you analyses the core system and aspect designs to discover where the aspects should be composed with the core system. Essentially, you are identifying the Joint points in a program at which aspects will be woven Conflict analysis and resolution Conflicts occur when there is a pinpoint clash with different aspects specifying that they should be composed at the same point in the aerogram Name design is the essential to avoid the problem of accidental pinpoints.These occur when, at some program Join point, the name accidentally matches that in a pinpoint pattern. The advice is therefore unintentionally applied at that point. 5. 3 Programming The goal of aspect-oriented programming is to provide an advance modularization scheme to separate the core functionality of software system from system-wide concerns that cut across the implementation of this core functionality. (Kim Mess and Tom Tour ©, 2007) APP must address both what the programmer can say and owe the computer system wil l realize the program in a program system.APP system: mechanisms are conceptually straight forward and have efficient implementations. 5. 3. 1 Joint Point Model A Join point model defines the kinds of Join points available and how they are accessed and used. They are specific to each aspect-oriented programming language for instance Aspects. In Aspects, Joint point are defined by grouping them into pinpoints. 5. 3. 2 Pinpoint A pinpoint is a predicate that matches Join points. A pinpoint is a relationship ‘Join point Boolean', where the domain of the relationship is all possible Join points. 3. 3 Advice 5. 4 Advantages and Disadvantages of APP APP promotes clear design and risibility by enforcing the principles of abstraction and separation of concerns. APP explicitly promotes separation of concerns, unlike earlier development paradigms. This separation of concerns provides cleaner assignment of responsibilities, higher modularization and easier system evolution, and should th us lead to software systems which are easier to maintain. The process is to collect scattered concerns into compact structure units, namely the aspects.On the other hand, APP cannot be elegantly applied to every possible situation. . 0 Validation and verification Validation and Verification is the process of demonstrating that a program meets the real needs of its stakeholders and meets its specification. Validation or testing is used to discover defects in the program or to demonstrate that the program meets its requirements. Statement verification techniques focus on manual or automated analysis of the source code. Like any other systems, aspects-oriented systems can be tested as black-boxes using the specification to derive the tests.However, program source code is problematic. Aspects also introduce additional testing (Ian Somerville (2006)) 6. 1 Testing problems with aspects To inspect a program in a conventional language effectively, you should be able to read it from right to left and top to bottom. Aspects make this as the program is a web rather than a sequential document. One can't tell from the source code where an aspect will be woven and executed. Flattening an aspect-oriented program for reading is practically impossible 6. Challenges with Aspect-oriented Systems One of the limitations of APP is that it is not supported by default on any programming platform. Although it seems to be gaining popularity, its implementation has been undertaken by third parties as extensions to development framework. This has resulted in some level of disparity on the features being implemented as some of the implementations only implement specific features making it difficult to use such frameworks in some situations in addition to creating some confusion over the feature.AAA programs can be â€Å"black-box tested† using requirements to design the tests, but program inspections and â€Å"white-box testing† can be problematic, since you can't always tel l from the source code alone where an aspect will be woven and executed. 7. 0 Recommendations Adopting Aspect Oriented Software development will reduce repetitions of coding or Component maintenance and reuse has a great impact to the company. On the part of cost, the company can determine whether it is easy to maintain its systems or not.Using other development paradigm can be cumbersome hence increasing tangling and scattering. System performance will also be affected in such a way that there could be more codes doing the same thing. GOAD concepts reduce redundancy and increase system performance. All functional and non-functional concerns are dealt with in GOAD. On implementation of security, Design flaws and code errors or bugs old be some of the causes of security flaws in software. Unlike SOD, GOAD approach made Software Development easy with the separation of concerns leading to modularization in reuse.

Following a structured approach Essay

How might following a structured approach to creating sound and strong arguments impact your life? Coercing others to agree with your argument requires sound premises. In life, you come across opportunities to apply this skill. These opportunities may be a promotion at work, a kitchen design your spouse does not agree with, or a plea for mercy from a police officer after you are caught speeding and running a red light in order to get home to meet your children at the bus. How have you begun to use logic as a tool for improving your everyday life? This class was perfect timing for my end of year review at work. We are asked to create a self-review that our supervisors can use to evaluate our performance. A portion of the self-review requires fact based scores attained throughout the year; the remainder is how you performed tasks. In the past, my reviews summed up to a plea for promotion and more money. I was able to apply critical thinking and create premises that are fact based. Above average scores received throughout the year shows my ability to perform my job with excellence. Experience with systems provided an opportunity to train and coach other instructional designers. A company approved pay scale calculated with performance (based on scores) and experience provides evidence for a pay raise. What are your future goals for changing your critical thinking and reasoning skills as a result of what you have learned in this course? I tend to jump into an argument with little to no thought. In this class, I have learned to take time to analyze the information and the opposing argument in order to make my argument deductive, sound, and strong. Jumping the gun leads to false premises with unsupported conclusions. Critical thinking removes clouded premises, attached by emotion that inevitably ends in a weak argu ment.

Systems Analysis and Design Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Systems Analysis and Design - Case Study Example Additionally, without any multilingual facets, it did not meet the peoples’ needs who speak diverse languages. Contemplative media vision was thus, in need of a new website to serve as a better communication means for its customers. To attain this goal, the project team began by carrying out a literature review and went on by following the four phases of the system development cycle, that is, planning, analysis, design and implementation. The final website was at last successfully developed to meet the project objectives. The aim of contemplative media vision is to employ media to empower, heal and bond people to their best part. This new inspiring media has the capability to help people find their true purpose, reinforce their ability to bond compassionately with others, as well as motivate them to find greater achievement in every area of their lives (Satzinger, Jackson, &Burd, 2012). The application also specializes in creating music for healing settings that deepens someone’s connection to what is most useful. It is enhanced by the influence of a musical recording. Products of contemplative media feature the sympathetic verbal messages of the worlds humanitarian and spiritual leaders. They also have those of common people facing unusual circumstances. Client from diverse departments can obtain the same use cases, for instance, may have the same client goal for employing the system. Owing to conventional Buddhist texts, along with veteran meditation instructors, contemplative practices are allied to a broad range of occurrences, some constructive and wonderful, others fairly tricky and testing (Satzinger, Jackson, &Burd, 2012). Since these incidents fall externally to the framework of western medicine along with science, there has been very little attempt to study experientially and document the complete collection of contemplative experiences. Consequently, lots of Western

Commercial Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Commercial Law - Essay Example Also, there was the complaint of distress that was caused on Epcot by Regus Ltd as they had to endure the unpleasantness associated with poor air conditioning. Regus was quick to react, and an exclusion clause that was presented by Regus claimed that Regus was not to be held responsible for any cases of losses that will be incurred while goods are in the custody of the same company. The clause further noted that losses of any kind; data, savings, profits, as well as, claims raised by third parties will not be incurred by Regus. As such, the clause mandated Epcot to ensure that goods are insured so that these losses will not be incurred by Regus. Under the UCTA Act of 1997, these claims were noted as void as Epcot argued for the exclusion clause noted by Regus to be struck out on the rationale that it did not pass the reasonableness test that is provided for in the Unfair Contract Terms (UCLA) Act.   The judge was guided by the fact that it was in Regus’ docket as per the con tractual agreement to provide proper air conditioning for Epcot. With this in mind, Regus was not in order to deprive Epcot of the payments that were to be extended for losses that were incurred. As such, it was not reasonable for Regus to claim for Epcot’s deprival to be remedied for all the losses. Regus was thus expected to be reasonable and cater partly for failure to be in a position to ensure protection from losses and distress that Epcot incurred. This clause was considered broad as it would mean that even stern breaches.... , these claims were noted as void as Epcot argued for the exclusion clause noted by Regus to be struck out on the rationale that it did not pass the reasonableness test that is provided for in the Unfair Contract Terms (UCLA) Act. The judge was guided by the fact that it was in Regus’ docket as per the contractual agreement to provide proper air conditioning for Epcot. With this in mind, Regus was not in order to deprive Epcot of the payments that were to be extended for losses that were incurred. As such, it was not reasonable for Regus to claim for Epcot’s deprival to be remedied for all the losses. Regus was thus expected to be reasonable and cater partly for failure to be in a position to ensure protection from losses and distress that Epcot incurred. The failure by Regus to provide proper air conditioning was questioned and Epcot was favored as the services as provided by the terms and conditions of the form contract were not met. An analysis of the exclusion claus e used by Regus would thus exclude the same company from any malicious or fraudulent cases that will result from their inability to provide satisfactory services. This clause was considered broad as it would mean that even stern breaches of the contract will not be remedied. The unreasonableness of the clause as provided for by the judge was challenged by the court of appeal. The court also challenged Epcot’s claim that Regus’ failure to provide proper air conditioning led to future loses that the company will incur. The appellate court noted that it would only be reasonable for Epcot to demand remedy for a decrease in the prices of the standards they expected from Regus. Liability remedy was earlier on not provided for by the exclusion clause according to the judge. However, this was not the

The Posthuman Condition by Bill McKibben Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Posthuman Condition by Bill McKibben - Essay Example Bill McKibben has implied in his arguments that most of the technologies such as life extension strategies, nano-medicine and choice technology that are proposed or sustained by trans-humanists are actually not humanist approaches. He has claimed that it is morally wrong for human beings to experiment with the basic aspects of life in attempts to achieve objectives that are higher than what is imposed by universally acknowledged human limitations. Human beings have no moral or ethical right to experiment with the gift of life relative to aspects such as susceptibility to aging, maximizing life span and biological limitations pertaining to cognitive and physical abilities. If humans make attempts to improve their conditions through manipulating with the natural process, they would remove the boundaries providing the essential basis relative to experiencing meaningful human choices. Bill McKibben has logically raised issues and explained that human life cannot be perceived as being mea ningful in an environment in which such restrictions could be removed through technology. He goes to the extent of claiming that even the objectives of utilizing germinal choice technologies relative to only therapeutic objectives should be done away with because such practices invariably create temptation whereby unwarranted tampering is done with issues such as the cognitive capacity of human beings. In supporting his contentions, Bill McKibben has provided credible evidence in terms of the examples of the Amish, the Tokugawa in Japan and the Ming in China. He has satisfactorily put forth arguments in holding that societies can benefit a great deal by relinquishing some particular technologies, which was done by the Amish, the Tokugawa in Japan and the Ming in China. The author is focused in claiming that tampering with genetics has threatened to put an end to so many important things that give meaning to life. He is in agreement that the meaning in human life has been declining s ince long, from the early ages. However, in regard to the modern world, the quality of human life and the meaning attached with it started declining more rapidly in the last five centuries. Bill McKibben is a very strong critic of trans-humanism and has argued on the possible socio economic adversities that may occur in societies whereby disparities and gaps amongst the rich and the poor will start increasing rapidly. In appealing to human emotions he has suggested that the human enhancement technologies that are now making many to feel excited; will actually be available on a disproportionate basis to only those that have higher levels of financial resources. This will obviously increase the gaps amongst the rich and the poor, thus leading to a genetic divide. Thinking further, as per logic, it is apparent that such methods will lead to the creation of a two tier society in which there will be divisions in terms of haves and have-nots because under such circumstances there is every likelihood that social reform initiatives will not be taken up in the true spirit and human enhancement technology will be allowed to be implemented in widening the gaps. The basic issues raised by Bill McKibben pertain to whether the laboratory will take the place of nature. Here, Bill McKibben has

Using Human Embryos in Stem Cell Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Using Human Embryos in Stem Cell - Essay Example From this study it is clear that  there is a hotly debated ethical issue, however, in harvesting of immature embryos for this purpose as many individuals in society believe that embryos in this very early stage of development should be considered living beings with the same moral rights as the average human.This discussion highlights that  those that prescribe to the deontological view of ethics believe this is an immoral act and that these early-stage embryos should be afforded the same universal human rights as fully developed human beings. Deontologists believe there is a singular moral code that should justify all actions against the call of duty toward this code. The utilitarian view of ethics and those who believe in this ideology of morality believe that it is perfectly acceptable practice so long as the utility of the majority in society is satisfied.  The utilitarianist perspective on the destruction of early-stage embryos as a means of advancing knowledge and medical treatments for those in society afflicted by disease is that this is morally permissible and should be heralded. The utilitarian view of ethics is that the ends serve to justify the means so long as the utility of the majority is satisfied.  Stem cell research maintains the ability to cure or otherwise treat countless members of society that suffer from genetic diseases and even severe physical trauma.  The regenerative properties of stem cells derived from early-developed embryos have significant tissue damage repair capacities.

Complex Project Management of Effective Project Management Assignment

Complex Project Management of Effective Project Management - Assignment Example The second main step of approaching complex projects is deeper and involves those projects whose main goal cannot be clearly defined, mainly referred to as the extreme projects. Such a goal is desired although it may not be possible to attain it. As a result of the increasing dynamic conditions in the contemporary project management, it is important for project management and stakeholders to make good choices of the best fit between problem-solution models and the final achievements of the project goals and objectives. Contemporary projects are becoming more uncertain, and with such increasing uncertainty come increased risk and complexity. Such uncertainty is due to changing market conditions that lead to high-change and high-speed responses in order to produce solutions that lead to more competitive advantage. On the other hand, complexity occurs due to a solution that eludes detection and thus, challenging to find, which may impose difficulties to the project manager to develop appropriate responses (Wysocki, 2014). The aspects of uncertainty and complexity are directly and positively correlated and thus, risk increases with increasing uncertainty and complexity. It is in this regard that as projects turn out to be more complex, they are dominated by higher levels of uncertainty. Such increase in project complexity leads to changes in different aspects of the project. Project requirements are a major factor to change due to increasing complexity. As complexity increases in a project, the chance of coming up with the complete definition of its requirements diminishes. At other fundamental levels, the project scope may become complex at later stages, which may raise the need for more requirements. In addition, as the complexity of the project increases, the need for flexibility in the main processes involved also increases. It is through increasing complexity that the need for project stakeholders

Development Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Development Administration - Essay Example In foreign policy, Neoliberalism is a proponent of the opening of foreign markets via political means, through diplomatic means, economic pressure and if needed be, then military might as well. In this context, opening of markets implies free trade and international division of labor. Neoliberalists mostly favor multilateral political pressure through various international organizations and treaty devices such as the WTO, the World Bank and the African Development bank. It promotes reducing the role of national governments to negligible. It encourages privatization over direct government involvement and evaluates success in the overall economic gain. To build on efficiency and increase employment, it works to reject and alleviate labor policies such as minimum wage and overall bargaining rights. It is a vehement opponent of socialism, protectionism, fair trade and according to some critics it is a major obstacle to democratic rule. Similarly these critics argue that labor rights and social justice should be prioritized over international relations and economics. In the United States neo-liberalism has been linked with positions that support free trade and welfare reform. It does not oppose Keynesianism and environmentalism in these areas. In the American context, for instance Brad DeLong is a very avid defender of Neoliberalism, despite being a Keynesian, someone who has constantly supported income redistribution and also a fierce critic of the Bush Administration. It is also colinked with the Third Way aka social democracy under the New Public Management movement. Those supporting the US Version of Neo-liberalism put it forward as a pragmatic position that focuses on what works and what doesn’t work. The concept emerged during the 1980s as an alternative to the famous interventionist approach of the Democratic Party and the anti-government Pro Business approach of the Republican Party. Charlie Peters, Robert Reich, Lester Thuron, Gary Hart, Paul

Digital Technologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Digital Technologies - Essay Example In the United States, it is estimated, that there are 30 million surveillance cameras, which generate over 4 billion hours of footage each week. Nonetheless, that is only an estimate; the numbers are still enormously high. With unmatched audio surveillance capabilities coupled with exceptionally precise as well as accessible video resources and seemingly endless intelligence gathering, analyzing, as well as storing efficiency, I feel that the IC has the infrastructure as well as resources available to give the equivalent amount of attention to each non-traditional threat identified. The evidence so far is compelling and I agree that the intelligence community has the ability and all available resources to afford equal concentration to the non-traditional threats.Asal et al. suggest that in the face of bountiful literature related to the viewpoint of terrorists/non-state actors using chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons, only a small percentage of this literary work is both quantitative in nature as well as universal in scale. What is more, it is only terror groups entrenched in alliances as well as found in authoritarian nation-states with somewhat strong ties to a globalized world, that are more liable to seek to stockpile or obtain CBRN weapons. In light of this, I concur that the United States cannot focus equal analysis on all non-traditional threats facing the American people. There has to be a level of prioritization in the intelligence that is gathered on these threats.

Starting a new solar panel company in Germany Research Paper

Starting a new solar panel company in Germany - Research Paper Example The sophistication of the economy is in evidence in the way high technology dominates its industries, with cars, chemicals, machineries, and related products constituting the core of its exports to the rest of the world. Outside of Europe too, in the context of the larger world economy, Germany’s economy stands proud as the fifth largest in the world. The sophistication of its products on the other hand also imply one, the presence of a highly technical and highly educated and intelligent workforce, and two, a sophisticated economy with serious and equally sophisticated energy needs. By way of quantifying the economy, in 2013 it was valued at $3.227 trillion at purchasing price parity, making it officially the sixth largest economy in the world. Its per capita GDP on the other hand is pegged at $39,500, making it number 29 in that area in the whole world, and highlighting the prosperity of the country and its citizens in general. The country also boasts of a labor force that i s entirely devoted to industries and to services except for less than two percent of about 44 million German workers. That 1.6 percent of the workforce toils in the agriculture sector. Industry makes up about a quarter of the labor force, while the rest, or close to three quarters, are involved in services (2; 9). Other indicators of economic health, such as economic freedom, also indicate a German economy that has been on the up and up for a long time, and in a way has never been in better shape as now, with the country achieving its highest rating for economy freedom historically in 2014. Moving back twenty years into the past, Germany was deemed as having an economy that was moderately free, but has since moved into the category of mostly free countries in the past eight years, advancing in its ranking consistently throughout that time, to achieve its highest rating at present (13). Elsewhere the prognosis is that Germany has moreover done better than its

The Rise and Fall of the Iron Curtain Essay Example for Free

The Rise and Fall of the Iron Curtain Essay â€Å"Two thousand years ago the proudest boast was civis Romanus sum [I am a Roman citizen]. Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is Ich bin ein Berliner! All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and, therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words Ich bin ein Berliner!† ~ John F. Kennedy (Introduction) The Berlin Wall was built in the dead of the night on August 13, 1961 and stood for about 28 years until the Wall finally came down on November 9, 1989. The history behind the creation and destruction of the Berlin Wall is truly tragic. It was built due to the fact that the relationship between the Soviet Union and the other three Allies was crumbling over different views and once World War II was finally over, it was clearly evident that they weren’t going to be able to resolve their issues. The Allies (Western Germany) wanted to help fix Germany after being conquered and turn it into a democracy, but The Soviet Union (East Germany) disagreed and wanted to make Germany Communist. Neither side wanted to budge with their views so each side continued life under their completely different controls with the split being within Berlin. While West Germany was prospering, East Germany was falling apart. They could of been compared as night and day from each other. At a certain point, East Germany was losing so many people to West Germany, that in the middle of the night, The Soviet Union built a â€Å"rough draft† of the Berlin Wall. The Berlin Wall was a split between East (Communist) and West (Democratic) Germany, but its destruction was almost as sudden as its creation. (Body) (Why the Berlin Wall was built) Before the Wall was built, people from either side could â€Å"freely† cross the boundaries every day for work or to just visit, but on August 13, 1961, that all changed. A quote that I found by Peter Galante summarized the day the Wall went up perfectly! â€Å"It was like splitting Manhattan down the middle of Fifth Avenue from the Battery to the Bronx; like splitting London with a zigzag line from Barnet to Croydon. . . . If you lived on one side and your office was on the other, you couldnt go to work. . . . If your mother lived on one side and you lived on the other, you couldnt go visit her. . . . The aim was simple and brutal: to shut a people in and annex to Communist East Germany what she had not been given by agreement, East Berlin. Its effect was cruel and horrible. At seven in the morning on the first day, a man went to see his child. Barbed wire, concrete blocks and armed police stood between them. For the people, it produced misery. From the people, it produced fortitude and heroism (Galante, 1965).† There are many reason of why the Berlin Wall built. One reason was due to the fact of economic reasons – too many people were moving from East to West Germany and this was crumbling East Germany faster. The second reason was political – West Germany was prospering and East Germany simply was not. (finish) (Why the Wall caused so much controversy) It is almost bluntly obvious to why the Berlin Wall caused so much controversy among the citizens of both East and West Germany. When the Wall first went up, it abruptly separated entire families, kept people from their jobs, and just basically tore people’s lives apart. No matter what they tried to do, they weren’t able to get through the boarders without some kind of conscience happening – being shot or attacked. People from East Germany tried to apply for visa’s to travel to West Germany and were regularly denied. Little by little, with the communist rule of East Germany locking its people within the city, people slowly but surely became frustrated and upset, which they had every right to be. (talk about different things people did to try and escape from East Germany) (Why is came down) (What was the aftershock of the wall coming down) (What is the significance of this event to today’s society) For almost 30 years, the sections of that Berlin Wall that still remain were the iron and concrete embodiment of the symbolic Iron Curtain between western democracies and the Communist world of the Soviet Union. I dont know if the wall itself has any impact today other than as a reminder of how bad things were in Eastern Europe in the early 1960s until the end of Communism there in the late 80s and early 90s. However, today we think of international terrorism, usually from the Middle East as the major threat, but when it was built by the Soviets and East Germans in August, 1961, the fear of Communism and nuclear war was as strong as the fear of Islamic terrorists, today, maybe stronger. (help?) (Conclusion) Today, although there is barely anything left of the Berlin Wall besides what is left as memorials of that horrible event, the scares of those 28 years are still â€Å"fresh† to those who had to go through or even witness that kind of torture. It is hard for us to truly imagine what life was like during that time. Having your town, city, state split straight down the middle, separated from friends, families, and loved ones for years by concrete and iron, and not being able to see them – that is truly unimaginable. I know I can’t imagine being separated from my family and knowing that if I â€Å"tried† to get passed that wall to see them, that I would either be shot, attacked by dogs, or something else, is scary. (need help finishing this) Bibliography Galante, P. (1965). The Berlin Wall. London: Arthur Baker Ltd.; 1St Edition edition (1965).

Gender equality and Islam

Gender equality and Islam CHAPTER I Introduction Introduction Nowadays, in most of the time, whenever we consider about Islam, we immediately visualize suicide bombing, jihad, terrorism, violent protests, repressive regimes and veiled women in the Middle East. That means we, unknowingly, have a sense of negative feelings towards Islam world. Especially when we think about a muslin woman, we almost always think they are the victims who are suffering from gender discrimination, inequality and injustice. However, since my young age, whenever I found and met with muslin female friends, almost all of them are happy, friendly and peaceful and so I came to have doubts about the existence of gender inequality within muslin society. Especially when I started to study the course named Gender, Labor and Human Rights, I begin to have lots of questions on gender inequality issues in Islam world. This makes me to read a lot of books, papers and journals concerning gender problems in muslin countries. Therefore, in this paper, I try to make the analysis of ge nder inequality issues in Islam world. In my opinion, it is very important to know about another religion and culture properly and, otherwise, we can make wrong judgments on another religion and we can even make wrong accusation and improper insults on them. First of all, before we criticize any religion or any culture, we should remember what is written in Article 18 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. (UN 1948) Therefore, we must respect their religion and, at the same time, we have to try to find ways to attain third Millennium Development goal which states Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women. Generally, it is mostly assumed that gender equality has been present in western countries long time ago. However, it is important to note that, until a hundred years ago, Western women had virtually no rights in law or practice. It means gender inequality has been in place for quite a long time not just in Muslim world, but also in a lot of countries around the world. However, when we look into the Quran, it can be seen that Islam gave far-reaching rights and a defined status to women before the first European woman suffragette. Therefore, the general assumption of the presence of gender inequality in Islam cannot be correct and so we do need to find out why gender discrimination came into existence in Muslim world and how we can help and bring gender equality for Islamic women. Therefore, in my paper, I will try to explore and analyze what caused gender discrimination to be present in Muslim world and examine whether is it is possible attain gender equality goal within the framework of Islam religion. Before I mention my analytical framework, I would like to describe seven types of gender inequality which is stated by Amartya Sen. He differentiated and categorized gender inequality into seven different forms such as mortality inequality, natality inequality, Basic facility inequality, special opportunity inequality, professional inequality, ownership inequality and household inequality (Sen 2001). It would be perfect if I can go into details in these seven issues and check whether it is prevalent and how intense it is in Muslim world. However, because of the limitation of time and space here, I will analyze based on four perspectives namely economic, educational, health and political perspectives, using two case studies on Tunisia and Indonesia. Finally, I will try to answer how gender equality could be achieved in Muslim World. Background Information of Islam What is Islam? The very word Islam translates from Arabic as submission or obedience (to the will and laws of Allah as set down in the Quran) and the word Muslim, with the same Arabic root, means that person or thing which obeys Allahs law. (Horrie and Chippindale 2001) One of the key institutions of Islam is the Islamic law (Sharia). The Sharia is derived from the Quran and Hadith the texts that record the sayings and practice of the prophet, which have been compiled over a century after the death of the prophet Mohammad (Starken 2005). In fact, when we look back into the history, it can be found that Islam, Judaism and Christian religions have quite close relations in the past, but, now, they have been quite different in their contents and beliefs. Whatsoever, it is not a deniable fact that those muslin countries in the Middle East did possess a glorious time in the past. Since 622AD (CE) when Islam was founded, this Religion has been spreading all over the world and, now, the number of Islam believers reached 1.5 billion in 2005. It became the second largest religion after Christianity and it is still growing at 19%. Additionally, throughout evolution over time, Islam has been differentiated into several categories. In certain ways, Muslims are the same everywhere, and yet their societies are different everywhere. Confronted by the wide range and diversity of Muslim societies, the present generation of writers suggests their categorization thus: Moroccan Islam, Pakistani Islam, Malay Islam and so on. (Ahmed 2002) Nowadays, at the time of globalization, Islam religion has been questioned by the west whether this religion is against human rights or not. At the same time, gender discrimination issue also becomes a very controversial topic for Islam among international scholars. CHAPTER II Islam and Gender Islam and Gender equality According to the global gender gap index 2009, it can be found that most Middle East and North Africa region countries not only continue to perform far below the global average, but also do not show much improvement over the last year or have deteriorated with the exceptions of Israel, Bahrain, Algeria, Morocco, Egypt and Saudi Arabia, each of which has improved as compared with their absolute scores in 2008. (Hausmann et al. 2009). Moreover, out of 134 countries, the countries which got the least overall gender index score are mostly from Muslin countries, with Yemen at the bottom. In addition, we generally perceived that muslin women are denied a number of basic human rights under Islam, which range from the requirement of a guardian to enter a marriage to the obligation of the wife to obey her husband (Starken 2005). Additionally, we are hearing lots of stories about how women were set at a lower standard and bullied by muslin men and so we are nearly blaming Islam religion and Prophet Muhammad. However, when we really want to understand the whole situation as an unbiased analyst, we must be very careful in criticizing another religion. When we look into Quran, we can find that the basic premise of Quran is that women are spiritually and morally equal to men. In one verse, the Quran states: The Believers, men And women, are protectors, One of another: they enjoin What is evil: they observe Regular prayers, practice Regular charity, and obey God and His Apostle. This ethical and religious equality between men and women can be summed up in terms of respect between spouses, obedience to God, and practice of the five pillars of Islam. Their roles are defined as complementary. Other Quranic laws preached several enlightened ideas in favor of women, such as property and educational rights (Halila 1984). Concerning education, the Quran Sura 35 Verse 28 states: Those truly fear Allah, among His Servants, who have knowledge. Moreover, Prophets Hadiths repeatedly emphasizes the acquirement of education and knowledge for every Muslim male and female. For example, one Hadith states that , Seeking knowledge is a duty of every Muslim, man or woman. (Ayisha Lemu 1978:25). Another Hadith states, Seek knowledge from the cradle to grave. (1978: 25). Another Hadith states that, Father, if he educates his daughter well, will enter Paradise. (The World Bank Report July 9, 1993: 25). Yet another Hadith states that, A mother is a school. If she is educated, then a whole people are educated (Shamley 2009). Moreover, there are still a lot of verses in which womens rights are well-stated and so it is sure that gender equality is not something incompatible with Islam religion itself. Factors for Gender Inequality in Muslim World Historical Factors First of all, we cannot forget about the long history of patriarchal dominance throughout the history in which most of the Islamic writings are almost exclusively in the hands of male religious scholars who interpreted in patriarchal way. Additionally, Muslins faced Eurepean colonization almost inevitable. Moreover, we can find lots of misusage of Islamic religion throughout the history by many a king. Hence, in 1981, Iman Khomeini said: Unfortunately, true Islam lasted for only a brief period after its inception. First the Umayyads and then the Abbasids inflicted all kinds of damage on Islam. Later the monarchs ruling Iran continued on the same path; they completely distorted Islam and established something quite different in its place. The process was begun by the Umayyads, who changed the nature of government from divine and spiritual to worldly. Their rule was based on Arabism, the principle of promoting the arabs over all other peoples, which was an aim fundamentally opposed to Islam and its desire to abolish nationality and united all mankind in a single community, under the aegis of a state indifferent to the matter of race and colour. It was the aim of Umayyads to distort Islam completely by reviving the Arabism of the pre-Islamic age of ignorance, and the same aim is still pursued by the leaders of certain Arab countries, who declare openly their desire to revive the Arabism of the Umayyads, which is nothing but the Arabism of the Fahiliyya. (Ahmed 2002) Moreover, concerning one of the most well-known issues, head scarf, it is not really according to Islam religion since Quran itself instruct women to cover their hair, breasts and private parts in public and not ask anything more. However, forcing women to cover their entire bodies as in much of Arabia and Iran is again cultural rather than Quranic, as are many other examples of discrimination against, or maltreatment of, women throughout the Muslim world. These include the practice of removing parts of the female genitals, so-called female circumcision or genital mutilation which is widespread in Muslim Arabia and Africa. Whilst the Quran does place restrictions on Muslim women, it also guarantees them the right to own and inherit property, to participate fully in political affairs and to sue for divorce in short a complete, separate legal identity. (Horrie and Chippindale 2001) Even though Prophet Mohammed did not discriminate women, after his death, religious scholars, kings and administrators elaborated and exaggerated the idea of mens role as protectors and very much reshaped Quranic injunctions in ways that suited them (Halila 1984). Colonial Factors Another important causal factor for gender inequality lies in colonialism. The impact of colonialism from the last century onwards affected society externally and internally in the most extreme manner. First and foremost, the already existing sexual divisions and roles of labour were further exaggerated. Colonialism imposed foreign values at the same time as it destroyed or eroded native ones. As a result, society collapsed internally, its destiny unsure, its confidence evaporated. Man retreated into the shell of rigid customs and sterile ritual, finding a form of security there. They also forced their women to hide behind burkhsa (shuttlecock veils) and remain invisible in the courtyards of their homes. In India, Mughal princesses were reduced to becoming prostitutes. The stereotype of Oriental females as chattels and playthings was formed. It was a bad time for Islam, a time of retreat. When the European masters began to leave from the middle of the twentieth century Muslim women were to be glimpsed still in various degrees of deprivation and subjugation. They still have to recover. Too much has been damaged. Deprived of economic and hereditary rights, and everywhere behind men in education, women formed into an inferior class. The actual situation of women, their social status and privileges, is usually far removed from the Islamic idea, whether in the tribe, village or the city. (Ahmed 2002) In fact, the Islamic civilization was virtually wiped out during the era of Colonialism, and thus what is left is a confused jumble of customs, religious ideas, imported governmental structures, political turmoil, and poverty (Emerick 2002). Economic Factors One important point we could miss to take into account is economic impact on gender issues. First, we cannot deny the existence of gender discrimination on labor issue in this world. Before we solve the division of labor and wages problems among men and women, it is very important to introduce women into the labor industry which will keep them out of their confined kitchens where they cannot learn anything and can get no idea to improve their gender role. As long as the women are engaged in Labor force, they can still at least get access to economic opportunities which have lots of impacts on their lives. However, it depends on the type of economy in which the country is introduced for women to get better access to labor markets. In Middle East oil-rich countries, the economic growth due to oil and mineral extraction is found to be a major cause for underrepresentation of women in the workforce. First of all, oil production did shape the country economy. When countries discover oil, their new wealth tends to produce an economic condition called the Dutch Disease, which is characterized by a rise in the real exchange rate, and a transformation of the economy away from the traded sector (agriculture and manufacturing) towards the non-traded sector (construction and services) (Corden and Neary 1982). Hence, in oil-rich Middle East countries, the traded sector cannot flourish and only non-traded sector becomes dominant. In many developing countries, women are largely employed in the traded sector, in low-wage jobs in export-oriented factories and agriculture; and they are excluded from many parts of the non-traded sector, such as construction and retail, since these jobs typically entail heavy labor, or contact w ith men outside the family (Anker 1997). Therefore, oil booming resulted in the inability and failure of women to join the nonagricultural labor force in non-traded sector. In fact, the entry of women to the labor force can boost female political influence since women in the workforce get a chance to form and join informal networks by which they can later attain collective action to lobby, influence and change a nations policy for the betterment of women. In those oil-rich Middle East countries, since the women miss chances to join workforce, they are far from acquiring collective bargaining power and they cannot influence in politics and policy making of the country. Hence, the lack of womens participation in economy has important policy implications. First, it reduced economic opportunities for women. Second, it reduced their political influence. Third, it may foster Islamic fundamentalism (Ross 2008). A recent study of 18 countries found that when Muslim women had fewer economic opportunities, they were more likely to support fundamentalist Islam (Lisa Blaydes and Drew Linzer 2006). Therefore, here, it is very important to accept and admit historical, colonial and economic causes as the real causes for gender inequalities in Islam. CHAPTER III CASE STUDIES Case Study One: Tunisia Background Information of Islam in Tunisia Tunisia was decolonized from French colonial rule in 1956, and Tunisia was led for three decades by Habib Bourguiba, who advanced secular ideas, including emancipation for women, the abolition of polygamy and compulsory free education. Within a few months after independence, the government changed the former family code and accelerated the enrolment of girls in primary and secondary schools and so, by the 1980s, enrolment rates for both girls and boys became very high. In 1987, Ziane El Abidine Ben Ali, who continued with a hard line against Islamic extremists, became president and he is still in power up to now. Tunisia is in the centre of North Africa and it has the population of 10.2 million according to UN in 2009 (BBC 2009). Its human development index (HDI) in 2009 is 0.769, falling in medium development group and it got 98th rank around the world (UNDP 2009). Even though it is a muslin country, womens right in Tunisia is among the most advanced in the Arab world. Gender Equality Movement in Tunisia In Tunisia, womens liberation movement went hand in hand with the efforts to free the country from colonization. The first advocates of womens liberation were the first nationalist leaders. The most prominent nationalist and feminist figure in Tunisia was Abdellaziz Thoalbi, who coauthored a progressive book called The Liberal Spirit of the Koran published in Paris in 1905. In this book some Quranic laws pertaining to women were reinterpreted from a liberal point of view, and education reforms and a progressive unveiling of women were called for (Halila, 1984). In 1930, when the feminist movement gained momentum, Tahar Haddad, a young intellectual, worte a revolutionary book called Our Women in Islamic Law and Society, in which he called for reforms in favor of women. In 1935, another attempt was led by a group of nationalist students, studying in French universities, who published the first feminist journal, Leila, in which the problems involved in the progressive emancipation of Tu nisian women were addressed.their emancipation platform included important points such as access to education and the abolition of the veil. As feminism and nationalism ran parallel in the 1930s, so did effective emancipation and social modernization in the postindependence era (Halila, 1984). Economic Impact on gender role in Tunisia Unlike other Middle East countries, Tunisia has a diverse economy with important agricultural, mining, tourism and manufacturing sectors (Horrie and Chippindale, 2001). Tunisia expanded its textile industry (traded sector) since about 1970 through exports, relying on low-wage female labor, and weathering changes in European trade policies and, now, it has the highest female labor participation together with Morocco in the Middle East. This high rate of womens participation in labor force has contributed to its unusually large and vigorous gender rights movements. Moreover, Tunisia has womens organizations that focus on female labor issues, including the right to maternity leave, raising the minimum work age, sexual harassment, and gaining rights for domestic workers. The womens movement began with an important advantage: shortly after independence, President Bourguiba adopted a national family law that gave women greater equality in marriage, and opened the door to major improvements in female education and employment (Rose 2008). Impacts and Achievements of Womens Rights Movement within Islamic religious Framework Thanks to all-out efforts of feminists along the history, Tunisia achieved lots of success in gender issue. One of the spectacular successes in the history of emancipation was the abolition of polygyny. The third verse of the fourth Surah mentioned as: If ye fear that ye shall not Be able to deal justly With the orphans, Marry women of your choice, Two or three, or four. And the same verse of Surah IV goes on to say: But if ye fear that ye shall not Be able to deal justly (with them), Then only one In a latter verse, it is mentioned Ye are never able To be fair and just As between women, Even if it is Your ardent desire: (Surah IV, Verse 129) Mahmoud Al-Annabi, president of the Court of Appeal, remarked: In order to protect the family, it was decided to take into account the impossibility of treating two or more wives equally. Moreover, President Bouguiba stated in his official speech on 13 August 1976 as: Polygamy is no longer acceptable in the twentieth century and constitutes an insult to the spirit of justice God never ordered that womans dignity should be trampled underfoot nor that she should be made mans victim. Finally, the modern Tunisia simply chose to outlaw polygyny in Article 18: Polygamy is prohibited. Marrying more than one shall incur a punishment of one years imprisonment and a fine of 240,000 francs or either of these. The legislation wanted to prove that, while polygyny was implicitly permitted, it was not an obligation (Halila, 1984). Additionally, lots of reinterpretation of Quran were done and women got more spaces in other issues such as marriage, divorce, dowry, the veil, etc. Later on, the womens movement has been more successful, raising the fraction of female-held parliamentary seats form 6.7% in 1995 to 22.8% in 2002 the highest in the Middle East, and higher than in Western countries like the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada (Rose 2008). Concerning education, the percentage of matriculation of girls in primary and secondary school increased from 34.6% in 1967 to 40.9% in 1980, and from 25.8% in 1964 to 36% in 1980 respectively (Halila, 1984). According to the Gender Gap Index 2009 Report as in the figure 2, Tunisia scored 0.623 and it was ranked as 109th out of 134 countries (Hausmann et al. 2009). In terms of political empowerment, it ranked 77th and it got 97th in terms of educational attainment. Concerning health, its maternal mortality ratio per 100,000 live births is 100 and maternity benefits are well covered by social security services and so Tunisia got 90 the rank. Concerning employment issue, female adult unemployment rate is 17.33% and male adult unemployment rate is 13.11% and so the gap is not much different. Even though Tunisia is a muslin country, it has been very successful in gender relations and so it means gender inequality issue does not totally depend on the religion. In case of Tunisia, it is very obvious that their gender equality can be promoted thanks to the reinterpretation of the Quran and their way of economic growth depending on traded sector which brings and engages lots of women into the workforce. Nowadays, Tunisia became a unique example of successful reform among Arab and Muslim countries. Therefore, we cannot blame the religion all the time for gender inequality issue and Tunisia is a very remarkable example that gender equality is possible to be achieved within the Islamic religious framework. Case Study: Indonesia Background Information of Islam in Indonesia The Republic of Indonesia is the world fourth most populated country and it got independence on 17 August 1945 after Japans surrender (Database 2008). Its human development index (HDI) in 2009 is 0.734, falling in medium development group and it got 111th rank around the world (UNDP 2009). It has the largest population of Muslims in the world and it is commonly stated that 90% of its over 230 million inhabitants are Muslims (wieringa 2006). Islam came into existence in Indonesia during the 13th century and, since the beginning of 19th century, due to the spread of Dutch colonialism, patriarchal culture was strengthened and institutionalized primarily in the legal system. Accordingly, even though the constitution guaranteed every citizen equality under law and government, Indonesian family law still applied different legal principles to different groups based on religion, customs and gender. This can be primarily attributed to a patriarchal interpretation of Islam (Katjasungkana 2004) . Soon after independence, Islamic groups have been fighting for the establishment of an Islamic state. In the late 1965 and the early 1966, at the time when Sukarno was replaced by Suharto, the two major groups, namely Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and the more rigid Muhammadiyah, grew closer and Suhartos New Order state was built on womens social, political, and sexual subordination, a policy justified by both anti-Communist and Islamic sentiments (wieringa, 2006). Various laws were enacted in which womens subordinate position was entrenched, such as the 1974 marriage law (Katjasungkana and Wieringa, 2003). As a result, the women became more suppressed than ever before. It has been a long way Indonesian feminist scholar, activists and women have struggled for womens rights within Islamic religious framework. Gender Equality Movement in Indonesia A Muslim feminist discourse is built around the reform of Islam along gender-sensitive terms, incorporating womens rights, such as those contained in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (wieringa, 2006) . In those movements for Womens Rights, non-governmental organizations (NGO) play a major role and so UNIEFM stated and recognized that Indonesia has a strong NGO base, working to end violence against women, fighting for new government policies and providing assistance for women who have experienced violence (UNIFEM 2009). After the destruction of the womens movement in 1965-66, after the fall of Surkano, Yasanti founded in 1982 by some young Muslim activists was the first reappearing feminist organization (Wieringa, 2006). One of the best-known womens rights organizations is the Indonesian Womens Association for Justice (Asosiasi Perempuan Indonesia untuk Keadilan, APIK) which was established in August 1995 to fight for gender justice in Indonesia, using the concept of gender and transformative legal aid. APIK launched legal assistance program, its core program, by which it provided direct legal aid to women who are victims of violence and discrimination. APIK conducted this program in the form of consultations (direct, via email or by telephone) and litigation (representing and accompanying clients, who are referred to as partners so as not to form a patronage relationship inside and outside the court). It was also active in the fields of legal advocacy and training, and conducted research (Research and Policy Study Program) on The history of the Marriage Law The response of religion towards gender stereotyping The impact of gender stereotyping in the Marriage Law on various state policies The attitude of poor communities towards gender stereotyping Discrimination of women in the legal system as observed from CEDAW Articles in the Quran and Hadith that support the principle of gender equality The position of women under Islamic Law in Indonesia Baseline research on VAW Impact of gender stereotyping on the working conditions of low-income women An alternative Report on the implementation of CEDAW in Indonesia Moreover, APIK provide legal information to the public and specific target groups through campaigning and public education. It also strengthened a national network for feminist legal activities, both nationally and internationally (Katjasungkana 2004). APIK claimed that Islam is not only for women but for the whole of humanity, women included. They distinguished between the basic principles of Islam, which are unchangeable, and fiqhi, the thoughts of the ulema (Muslim scholars), who are only human after all and therefore prone to biases. They advocated legal reform in Indonesia in which gender biases introduced by fallible fiqhi are eliminated (Wieringa, 2006). Nursyahbani Katjasungkana, APIKs founder, introduced the concept of gender-sensitive transformative legal aid (Katjasungkana and Wieringa, 2003). Then, a broad range of womens organizations were involved in these debates and struggles. The major groups are APIK, the Womens Research Institute, and the mass-based Koalisi Perempuan Indonesia (KPI; Coalition of Indonesian Women for Justice and Democracy), the secular Womens Human Rights Commission. Even Shinta Nuriyah who is the wife of NU leader and former president Abdulrachman Wahid and Musdah Mulia who is the head of the gen der unit of the otherwise very conservative Ministry of Religion joined the movement (Wieringa, 2006). Impacts and Achievements of Womens Rights Movement within Islamic religious Framework Needless to say, womens organizations fought a very long, hard and tough battle in the midst of suppressive regime, Islamic fundamentalists and extremists. Often, they were violently intervened by arresting, detaining, even kidnapping and murdering female activist (Katjasungkana, 2004). However, because of their relentless efforts, women can move much forward than ever before. On top of their couragous advances, the downfall of the New Order government of Soharto in 1998 offered great opportunities to non-governmental organi

Urban Heat Island and Green Infrastructure

Urban Heat Island and Green Infrastructure Chapter 1 What is urban heat island? History â€Å"Did you know that people can affect the environment and even change the weather? Well, next time you are told you cannot, say you already have.†[1] The more urban areas and construction industry develop, the more profoundly the surrounding landscape is altered but also the city scene is changed. Buildings and streets infrastructure replace open land and vegetation. Regions that were once permeable and moist are converted into impervious and dry surfaces. These changes cause urban regions to become warmer than their suburban and rural surroundings therefore forming areas of higher temperatures or heat bubbles in the landscape. This effect is now known as urban heat island and is absolutely not related to the greenhouse effect or global warming. It is strictly a land use phenomena, sometimes exacerbated by city activities. It was in the 1810’s when Luke Howard, a British meteorologist, first investigated and in 1818-1820 described the phenomena. His study[2] was made on the London climate and he documented the effect that built-up areas have on the local weather and temperature. Nowadays, the urban heat island is one of the most studied climate effects of settlements and there is a large body of data on urban heat island characteristics from cities globally. Components of urban heat island In order to identify and describe the urban heat island in one metropolitan area, scientists use temperature registrations of different components. The first component is the surface temperature which represents the temperature of exposed urban surfaces like streets, pavements, faà §ades and roofs. The second component is the atmospheric temperature defined by the air temperature measured in two layers from a vertical city section. These two layers are defined like this: Urban canopy layer – represents the city’s layer of air from the ground to the roofs’ level Urban boundary layer – represents the city’s layer of air from above the roofs to the point where urban activity no longer influences the atmosphere. Figure 2‑a Picture illustrates the difference between urban boundary layer and urban canopy layer Apparently, surface and air temperatures are not related, however surface temperature has an indirect, but extremely significant influence on air temperature, especially in the urban canopy layer. During day time, heat is absorbed by urban infrastructure and edifices and after sunset the energy is slowly released in the air. Consequently, the air temperature in the city during night is maintained at a high level while in suburbs it is cooling down. Figure 2‑b Picture illustrates the city heat bubble Urban heat island is manifested as heat bubble that incorporates the affected parts of the city. But for a better general understanding, when referred to urban heat island effect, it is normally presented as a temperature difference or comparison between the air within the urban canopy layer and that measured in a suburban or rural area outside the settlement both during day and night. Figure 2‑c Picture illustrates the temperature difference between the urban and suburban areas The temperature difference between the two zones is specific for every settlement and it depends significantly on local climate and city morphology. The same rule applies to how warm the urban area is during nighttime compared to daytime. As a general approximation, it could be stated that the city temperature is warmer with 2 ° to 12 °C than suburbs and surrounding rural areas but its. As a result the annual mean air temperature of a city can be with 1 ° to 5 °C warmer than its surroundings.[3] How do urban heat islands form? From the beginning it should be pointed out that every settlement is capable of generating a heat island regardless of its size or location. However, the aspect of urban heat island is characteristic to every city. In addition to the local climate which is subjected to various meteorological factors such as temperature, relative humidity and wind, a number of man-made causes determine the occurrence and intensification of urban heat islands. This phenomena must be seen as the combined result of energy losses and gains together with the increasing area urbanization. City background Climate Settlements’ background strongly influence urban heat island formation. Climate, predominantly wind and clouds, is one of the most significant factors. Heat island levels are largest under calm and clear weather conditions while increasing winds mix the air and reduce the phenomena. Figure 2‑d Picture illustrates how radiative cooling works on cloudy and cloudless nights Radiative cooling is â€Å"the process by which a body releases heat†[4]. In this case the bodies are buildings and pavements. This process is substantially affected by the presence or absence of clouds therefore the level of urban heat island is different depending on the conditions. The maximum level of radiative cooling is experienced on cloudless nights. If there is no wind there is nothing that can block the release of heat in the atmosphere. Therefore the air within the urban canopy layer will continuously be heated and in this case the urban heat island reaches the highest point. Clouds reduce radiative cooling as they increase humidity level and also bring precipitations. Furthermore clouds act like a barrier that absorbs released heat and re-radiate it both back and towards the atmosphere, fact that leads to temperature equalization within the canopy layer. Table 2‑c Temperature equalization process When the temperature equalization is reached, the radiative cooling process stops. In this case, the urban heat island is less prominent than during clear sky nights. Geographic location Geographic location has also an influence on urban heat island. A coastal city may experience cooling of urban temperature as well as cities in cold or temperate climates. A city located in the proximity of a forested area has the tendency to create a higher urban heat island than a city developed in a desert. Forests are cooler, therefore the temperature difference between the city and the forest will be higher compared to the desert case where the temperatures are close. City’s morphology Albedo An additional factor that influences urban heat island, particularly at night, is urban morphology. Increasing urbanization heavily alters the ground cover and water formations. What used to be vegetation, beach or lake, now is converted into a city form which comprises the materials used in constructions and infrastructure, the buildings’ dimensions and spacing and amount of green spaces. Materials’ surface color is also an important factor in the city’s morphology. Albedo is determined by the reflectivity of a surface. It is usually defined as a percentage of reflected radiation or by a number between 0 and 1. An albedo with a value of 1 means that 100% of the incoming radiation is reflected and 0% of it is absorbed. An albedo with a value of 0 means that 100% of the incoming radiation is absorbed and 0% of it is reflected. Additionally, urban geometry influences the wind flow direction and speed. Figure 2‑e Albedo illustrations Urban materials One typical city can have approximately 10-20% of its land surface rooftops. Concrete, asphalt and pavements may cover up to 35-55% of the city’s area. All previously mentioned surfaces are really burning during summer, and during day time they can be hotter with more than 50 °C than the air temperature. These structures and the materials they are composed of have large heat capacity and surface radiative properties that facilitate absorption and storage of solar energy. What is more is that urban construction materials are often dark in color, especially roof coverings and a low albedo effect contributes even more to the development of urban heat island. Cities can have multiple and different formations but the ones most relevant to urban heat island are urban canyons. They are like a standard classification of the urban environment, covering the width of the streets and buildings’ height and are usually defined by a ratio between these two factors. Building height is defined by H and canyon with, which represents the streets’ width and thus the distance between buildings from the sides of the street, is defined by W. A high ratio of H:W means that the urban canyon is tall and narrow and a low H:W means that the urban canyon is low and wide. This ratio is a relative measurement. Figure 2‑f Upstream urbanization â€Å"To cool cities, build them tall and shiny†[5]. The impression that tall buildings act as a protection from heat is a completely misplaced one. In fact, small, modern cities with upstream urbanization can have a larger urban heat island effect than a bigger city with no upstream urbanization. This study Thermal Effects of Urban Canyon Structure on the Nocturnal Heat Island: Numerical Experiment Using a Mesoscale Model Coupled with an Urban Canopy Model[6] on tall and narrow urban canyons demonstrates the complex effect that skyscrapers have. These urban canyons display a larger amount of materials that can retain heat and the faà §ades area is close to or even bigger than the canyon area itself. Buildings act as a barrier against wind and air is hardly circulated. Narrow urban canyons with skyscrapers limit the sky view and streets are most of the time shaded. But even with a modest amount of daylight comes a large retention of heat. At the beginning of the day, only the uppermost part of the faà §ades are directly sunlit, but during the day, the beam of light reaches lower. At the end of the day, more than 60% of the skyscrapers’ faà §ade area is sunlit by the direct light beam and thus results a maximized heat absorption per unit area. The absorbed heat is rel eased during night and narrow spaces between buildings act as a trap and the cooling process becomes slower. The amount of released heat combined with hot gas emissions and reduced wind speed make these city segments experience an increased urban heat island effect. Another very common urban canyon is the wide and high type. Skyscrapers act as wind barriers but there is a higher chance to have a better natural ventilation because of the wide spaces between the buildings. The sky view is larger than in a narrow and high urban canyon therefore the building shading effect is lower. Buildings and pavements receive direct sunlight throughout the entire day and at night the cooling process is slow. This is because a large amount of heat is released in the same time in a relatively small space and there is very little wind to help the process. Figure 2‑i Shadow effect in low urban canyons Wide and low canyons receive more sunlight and wind enters between buildings easier than in a high urban canyon. Streets are only partly shaded by buildings and buildings across the street rarely shade each other. In this situation, during the day, buildings and streets absorb heat faster and on the entire surface area. Surfaces receive direct light beam with maximum heat and they also absorb the small reflected heat by surrounding materials. Likewise heating process the cooling process at night is also faster because the large space between buildings does not trap the warmth and allows air circulation. Lack of vegetation As previously mentioned, increasing urbanization alters the local landscape and most importantly it is done in many ways that really trap a lot of heat. Most of the city’s area is covered with different materials which obstruct the growing of vegetation and prevent the ingress of water in the soil. Therefore the natural circulation process of water in atmosphere is completely changed and it becomes a general concern only when it is too late for changing. As a result, city’s top view in general looks like a mass of concrete combined with asphalt and with not too many little green spots as parks. Therefore, cities are considered hotspots of heat also due to the lack of grass and trees. Vegetation provides moisture and shade which helps lower the surface and air temperature. Open land is a living component compared to concrete and asphalt and it is cooler due to water infiltration high albedo. When sun is shining the water is released from the ground and it cools the surfa ce and also the air by providing humidity. Effects The most obvious effect of urban heat island is that it increases the annual mean temperature of the city. Increased surface heat, especially during summer, can pose a threat to indoor temperatures as well. When a building is designed, faà §ades and roofs are projected to act as an envelope that protects the indoor for outdoor in normal circumstances. But the envelopes’ outside materials are exposed to direct sunlight throughout the day. When the outside surfaces reach abnormal high temperatures hotter than air temperature, no matter how well the walls and roofs are insulated, the indoor air is affected. As a result, air conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems (HVAC) are overused and the energy consumption of the building is increasing. Figure 2‑j Heat bubble effect on clouds The urban heat island can be represented as a heat bubble which incorporates the city. â€Å"When a normal cloud hits the heat bubble it can expand up to two times and can blow up about the half way through. This leads to an increase in precipitations and sometimes the midtown can see up to two times more rainfalls quantity than areas surrounding it.†[7] 1 | Page [1] Quote from Elliot, M. (Director), 2013. The urban heat island explained on The Weather Channel [2] Howard, L., 1818-20. The climate of London: deduced from Meteorological Observations, made at different places in the neighborhood of the metropolis (1st ed., Vol. I). London [3] Quote from Wikipedia, 2001. Urban heat island. [online] [4] Quote from Wikipedia, 2003. Radiative cooling. [online] [5] Quote from Upton, J., 2014. To cool cities, build them tall and shiny. [online] [6] Paragraph information from Kusaka, H., Kimura, F., 2004. Thermal Effects of Urban Canyon Structure on the Nocturnal Heat Island: Numerical Experiment Using a Mesoscale Model Coupled with an Urban Canopy Model. American Meteorological Society. [7] Quote from Elliot, M. (Director). (2013). The urban heat island explained on The Weather Channel

African American gay rights Essay -- essays research papers fc

I cannot begin to argue about African American/Hispanic LGBT, living in New York City and their civil rights without remembering the public outcry against black civil rights. Although the focus of this paper is on African American/Hispanic LGBT living in New York City and Their Rights to Marriage I have decided to start my paper of by discussing the civil rights movement of the 1960’s. The civil rights movement of the 1960's and the continuing struggle against race-based discrimination were rooted in the struggle against slavery. As early as the eighteen hundreds the United States legislative had laws known as segregation laws that limited certain freedom to them. They had to live in separate neighborhood, attend separate schools, drive in the back of public buses verses in the front where Whites were; African American would not dare go against these laws back then because if and when they did, they were unjustly imprisoned, beaten lynched and more for just trying to exercise human rights.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the 1960s African Americans led a fight to remove the legally codified vestiges of slavery from our constitution and from state and local laws. Most repulsive among these, were Jim Crow laws that required racial segregation; African Americans had to endure all these things until The Civil Rights Movement. The modern concept of civil rights was pioneered by African Americans in their long struggle to become full citizens of the United States. From the Civil...

PMS: How Much Do We Really Know? Essay -- Biology Essays Research Pape

PMS: How Much Do We Really Know? "Basically, PMS has been piecemealed. It's like the story of the five blind men and the elephant. One checked the trunk, another the leg and so on, but nobody has the full picture." --Dr. Susan Thys-Jacobs (1). The Controversy There has been much controversy over the biological factors involved in the mood disorders and discomfort felt by countless women before the onset of menses. The common term for this discomfort is pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS). PMS is a disorder involving hormonal changes that trigger disruptive symptoms up to two weeks prior to menstruation. While for many women the symptoms are not severe enough to require treatment, 12 % (5 out of 40 million) are medically treated for their symptoms (2).While many scientists have supported the existence of PMS, the exact causes and treatments have created some controversy. It is not clear how much of the presence of PMS is due to physiological factors (such as hormones) and how much is due to psychological and societal factors. What role exactly has society played in the perception of symptoms? In what capacity is the I-function involved? The Symptoms PMS affects approximately 8 out of 10 women. Since the 1930s, the grouping of symptoms has remained fairly consistent. An American neurologist originally described these characteristics in 1931. The symptoms are grouped as follows: "A- Anxiety: irritable, crying without reason, verbally and sometimes physically abuse, feeling "out of control", or Dr. Jekyl-Mr. Hyde behavior changes. D- Depression: confused, clumsy, forgetful, withdrawn, fearful, paranoid, suicidal thoughts and rarely suicidal actions. C- Cravings: food cravings, usually for sweets or chocolate; dia... ...ssociated with PMS, as well as the exact nature of hormones, emotions, and other psychophysiological factors. WWW Sources 1) PMS and PMDD Cause Serious Suffering http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/doctor/lhdoc094.htm 2) Medical Treatment of PMS http://www.usdoctor.com/pms.htm 3) The Health Report-PMS http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/helthrpt/stories/s11123.htm 4) What is EEG Biofeedback? http://www.eegspectrum.com/articles/faq.htm 5) EEG Biofeedback Training for PMS http://www.eegspectrum.com/articles/pms94.htm 6) PMS, EEG, and Photic Stimulation http://www.snr-jnt.org/journalnt/jnt(2-2)2.html 7) The Many Faces of PMS http://www.bairpms.com/ Additional Sources 8) Slade, P. (1984) Premenstrual emotional changes in normal women: Fact or fiction? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 28. 1-7. 9) Ruble, Science Vol. 197

Emerging Markets; Risks and Challenges

Trade among these countries has also grown by a staggering amount in recent years and their multinational companies are now competing with those from the developed economies. There remain, however, significant risks and challenges to investing in these countries. They are discussed here under these broad headings; Political, Economic, Legal and Socio cultural. They affect the different countries in deferent ways and sometimes Interact in deferent ways to produce deferent results. For example, political processes more often than not drive economic, legal and social policies of governments.China and India, two of the largest emerging markets operate very different political processes and therefore have two very different sets of political institutions. Chinese communism and Indian democracy vary significantly, and their political systems ultimately affect the choice of economic, legal and social policies. The first step to emerging market status for most of these countries can be trace d to political reforms and/or movements, examples being the transition from authoritarian to democratic governments and economic liberation's.It can also be argued that social reforms and/or popular movements brought about the downfall of the authoritarian governments in the first place, allowing for reforms in the political and economic systems In place (the political economy), thus paving the way for economic gains witnessed today. Despite the often complex interactions between these factors, wave attempted to simplify them by grouping them In broad categories. Emerging markets also face challenges as they come to grips with economic prosperity and their new status in the global community.

Labor and Delivery Nurse

Cassidy Howell Mrs. Savage Medical Anatomy 3 10 April 2013 Labor and Delivery Nurse It was said best by an unknown author, â€Å"If love can't cure it, nurses can. † Nursing is a broad and dependable career option. There are many different fields of nursing; particularly there is â€Å"Labor and Delivery. † The duties of a labor and delivery nurses consist of assisting women during their pregnancy, labor, and post-birth. Labor and delivery nurses must contain qualities of professionalism, good analytical skills, and the ability to make quick decisions.Not only do these nurses assist patients, they also counsel families and collaborate with doctors (Labor and Delivery Nurse). All fields of nursing have a few things in common, one of them being the required training. The first step to becoming a labor and delivery nurse is to be accepted into a college institution where you can major in nursing. While attending a such college, a labor and delivery nurse must earn her Regi stered Nurse degree, these degrees can be obtained in two or four years.The only way to obtain a degree is to first get accepted into nursing school, and complete all undergraduate requirements. During nursing school students take classes in the liberal arts, hard sciences, microbiology, organic chemistry, pathophysiology, psychology, and a semester of clinical education. In these classes nurse receives hands-on training at a hospital ( Herlihy, S. ). There are many available colleges that offer a nursing degree. In the state of Alabama, there are 41 colleges alone that offer an education in nursing.Both the infamous rival schools, Auburn University and University of Alabama, offer a major in nursing, so do their sub schools, Auburn University at Montgomery and University of Alabama in Huntsville. Not only do the National Champions offer nursing degrees, but many other colleges across the state including but not limited to Troy University, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Univer sity of South Alabama, Jacksonville State University, and Jefferson State Community College (Hack College).Getting a degree alone is not enough; a license is required to become an official nurse. The state of Alabama requires all future nurses to take an exam called the NCLEX (National Council Licensure Examination) that certifies them to be licensed to practice nursing in Alabama. After taking the exam, to become completely board certified in the specific field of labor and delivery nursing, experience as a staff nurse and clinical experience in labor and delivery is needed (Nursing Schools).After successfully getting a degree in nursing, licensed, and found a job, an income ranging between $45,000-$95,000 is to be expected. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median annual wage for a registered nurse is approximately $65,000. It’s to be expected to start lower, and have promotions along the way as more experience is gained. Other factors also affect the salary, such as level of education and/or type of degree earned, cost of living in the area, and nursing specialty.Salary especially fluctuates for a labor and delivery nurse. For example, a manager can earn high salaries that exceed $83,000 annually. Also, a women's health nurse practitioners (WHNPs) working in labor and delivery make more than $74,000 a year (Salary Information). There are many different options for a labor and delivery nurse, along with different settings within the labor and delivery unit. Options include direct care to patients in labor with uncomplicated deliveries to those with pregnancies that are experiencing complications.Labor and delivery nurses also circulate the hospital floor to help manage patients in the operating room during deliveries and work as a surgical assistant during complicated procedures. Labor and delivery nurses can also work in the nursery, where they help monitor and care for newborn babies (About Labor and Delivery Nurses). Every medical ca reer has many personal awards, achieving a degree in a medical field is a big accomplishment alone. All medical fields combine science with care, however labor and delivery touches a special